- 在線時間
- 262 小時
- 最後登錄
- 18-5-31
- 國民生產力
- 24
- 附加生產力
- 2118
- 貢獻生產力
- 0
- 註冊時間
- 03-11-10
- 閱讀權限
- 10
- 帖子
- 2276
- 主題
- 36
- 精華
- 0
- 積分
- 4418
- UID
- 16008
 
|
Re: 公文英文-想暫停得唔得?
佩服 ChiChiPaPa 於短時間內對公文數學習有確切了解. 以下是一篇我今早在網上看到的公文教育研究報告, 我囝囝的學習和 ChiChiPaPa 的解說, 可從報告中得到印證..
DR. DAVID E. WEISCHADLE
Professor of Education
Montclair State University
Department of Counseling,
Human Development and Educational Leadership Upper Montclair New Jersey 07043.
One observer (Coulson, 1999) reported that one in three children in Japan are involved in supplemental education programs by grade five. Today, 1,468,577 children in Japan attend Kumon programs. It is the leading provider of supplemental or extended educational programs in that country. Students from Japan and other Asian countries set the pace for the international community consistently placing high on the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS).
While the Kumon Method has its roots in Japan almost a half century ago, it has continued to develop to meet the needs of students. Both the math and reading curricula material are under constant review and updating, using feedback from instructors, students, families and educators in general. As a result, the Kumon organization has refined the key principles and realized a great deal of success. While much of this success is measured by anecdotal material, Kumon North America, with national headquarters in Teaneck, New Jersey, is now developing research studies which it hopes will quantify this success in terms which educators will recognize as significant.
This article seeks to identify some of the approaches which have been found to be successful with Kumon students. In many cases, research already supports the principles of learning behind the Kumon Method and explains why students are benefiting. In addition, some data from current studies launched by Kumon have given further evidence that this method has great potential to improve student achievement.
The Kumon Method clearly illustrates the value of supplemental education or extended learning opportunities. Schools in America have adopted curricula that seek to improve students conceptual understanding of math and use of manipulatives. Kumon, in contrast, has a great emphasis on computation and efficiency. While schools encourage the student to reflect and consider how problems are to be solved, Kumon encourages the student to develop his or her memory, learn and store computational procedures, and be independent learners. Kumon provides balance to the school program which Klein (2000) describes as having a "near obsession with calculators, and basic skills [which] are given short shrift and sometimes even disparaged."
While much of the Kumon experience in the United States has been in after-school franchised learning centers, it also has a rich history in schools as well. Approximately 8,000 students now use Kumon during regular school hours in Houston, Dallas, Atlanta and other cities scattered throughout the United States. Key educators in those communities recognized the potential of Kumon and became proponents of the curriculum. It is on this foundation that the Kumon organization is building its current plans to expand to even more schools, particularly in large cities where the potential to aid students is so great.
With Kumon supplementing the school program, students gain much more from their classroom instruction. Since 1990, the schools have emphasized teaching toward the national and state standards in each subject area. As a result, in math, the focus has been on broad concepts, the understanding of word problems, and the use of calculators. The Kumon Method complements this instruction with the opportunity to practice and apply basic math, thus enabling students to reinforce their classroom learning. It is an extremely meaningful relationship; literally, an educational "one-two punch."
Practice and Repetition
Kumon instructors have learned that students gain much from structure and practice. The Kumon method is focused around a series of assignments or worksheets which form the foundation for the learning of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. For reading, the method employs a similar approach that uses sight words, phonics and whole language techniques.
Completion of the worksheets results from the student analysis of the assignment presented and his or her correct answers. The student moves progressively through the assignment worksheets which comprise multiple levels. Successful completion is designed to result in understanding the concept and the examples of the concept. Overall, it promotes understanding, skill and confidence.
Students are guided through the assignments, and are asked to repeat the assignments where they experience difficulty or made a number of mistakes. This activity provides the student with what Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer (1993) describe as "deliberate practice." In effect, the practice reinforces the learning and provides the student with the opportunity to re-learn some steps he or she forgot. The learner of math then becomes like the budding athlete who finds he or she must practice and then, practice some more, to achieve competency.
While the study of memory and repetition date back to Ebbinghaus and his famous "forgetting curve," recent studies in language acquisition by Gass et al (1999) suggests there is "evidence that task repetition resulted in improvement in overall proficiency, selected morphosyntax, and lexical sophistication."
Speed and Accuracy
The increasing dependency on test scores has raised the level of attention about the ability of students to take tests and do well. Urban schools particularly are concerned about how well students focus on taking exams and achieve scores which reflect their true ability. When faced with taking standardized timed tests, many youngsters spend too much time on simple problems and quickly fall behind. In general, their use of time for calculations which could be memorized is wasteful. As one principal (Mote, 1996) noted, "While memorization has not gotten much favorable notice in educational journals in recent years, I believe it is a powerful learning tool that deserves attention in every curriculum."
A basic tenet of the Kumon Method is getting the correct answer as quickly as possible. Kumon instructors literally teach speed and accuracy, emphasizing the efficiency of learning. Somewhat incidentally, this approach is ideal for test taking. Getting the right answer quickly allows the test taker to use the newly available time for tougher questions.
In a pilot project at the Steele Elementary School in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, "at-risk" students in grades 1 through 5 received supplemental instruction using the Kumon Method in math and reading. Using Kumon diagnostic tests, the students were assessed in terms of the changes in accuracy and speed. The following shows that significant outcomes were realized in just forty-five days of study. In reading, students in grade 1 through 5 increased their speed by nearly 17% (16.9%) and raised their accuracy level by over 9% (9.3%). In math, Steele students improved their speed by 13% and their accuracy by nearly one percent (.7%).
These positive gains in speed and accuracy in such a short period of time are encouraging. However, the modest level of these gains indicates that there are no "quick fixes" when working with at-risk students.
Mastery Learning
Benjamin Bloom (1968,1974) advanced the concept that sufficient time, appropriate instruction, and corrective feedback will enable 95% of the students to learn what only 20% are able to learn without these key elements. The Kumon Method employs all three elements. Kumon encourages students to take the time and practice the lesson. The assignments or worksheets are carefully organized to promote self-learning. Grading of the sheets is immediate so the student gains immediate information about his or her work. Clearly, the Kumon Method is simple yet comprehensive.
Under a three-year grant from the federal government, Project SAIL, or Schools for Active Interdisciplinary Learning, at Oklahoma State University, is examining Kumon's ability to "develop gifts and talents in economically disadvantaged students." Now in its second year, the initial findings reflect the great potential of Kumon. At the end of the school year, Barnes et al (2001) found that the 5th graders who had received Kumon instruction had improved so that 65% of them had mastered at least addition and subtraction and 20% had mastered multiplication and division. In the non-- Kumon group of 5th graders, only 10% had mastered addition and subtraction and none had mastered any concept beyond that. For the 3rd graders, the Kumon group significantly outscored the non-Kumon group on all of the ITBS (Iowa Test of Basic Skills) math subtests as well as on the reading comprehension sub-test. Cox (2000) also found similar results with the general population of an elementary school.
Independent Learning
Much of the classroom activity in American schools is teacher-oriented and teacher-controlled. Information, ideas, and concepts are presented by teachers, organized as they or other teachers think it should be. When the teacher believes the majority of youngsters know or master the subject, the teacher moves on to the next level. However, researchers are increasingly aware that non-teacher alternative approaches hold great promise. As Agran (1997) and particularly Wehmeyer et al (2000) have noted: ". . . there is a growing recognition that there may be marked advantages to having students more actively involved in educational decision-making as well as delivery of instruction itself."
Kumon instructors rely on the student's activities and success to drive student learning activities. In Kumon, the teacher becomes what Linda Darling-Hammond (2001) describes as the "guide on the side" rather than "a sage on the stage." The student using the Kumon Method becomes the key ingredient to learning. After initial diagnostic testing, the student begins the study of math or reading at the point where the student has full knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, and can complete assignments with no error in a set time frame. The "just right starting point" enables the youngster to realize success and satisfaction, which motivates the student to continue on to the next assignment.
Success reinforces the youngster sufficiently and provides support if there are possible setbacks with new material. In the process, the student gains an understanding of the curriculum and knows that the Kumon instructor is there to facilitate the independent learning process. As a result, the student using the Kumon Method gains experience, builds confidence, and gains encouragement to go further. Experiencing the process in supplemental sessions means that schoolwork should become increasingly easier to control by the student. In effect, the student is building his or her self-efficacies, a feature which Scott (1996) says will enable students to "feel in control of their learning situation and believe they have the capabilities necessary to succeed." Students with "high efficacy" are "motivated to work toward a learning goal."
Goals and Feedback
Working independently is only a part of the Kumon Method. In order to focus the students work, goals and objectives are crucial. Kumon's inherent goal is illustrated by its motto - "G by 5"-that is; completion of Level G (Algebra) by fifth grade. This motto becomes the focus of the student and the instructor, giving both achievement outcomes that are realistic and practical using the Kumon approach.
That approach involves students, parents, and instructors. All are part of the mix of goal setting, grading and ongoing feedback. Using the assignments or worksheets, the student and the instructor establish realistic goals about the student's progress over the next six months, and then over the next twelve months. Student success, as indicated by completion of the assignment with very few or no errors, tells the student he or she is doing well, provides assistance to the instructors planning and aids parents in helping their children. Such information enables the Kumon student to become what Bandura (1997) describes as the "self-regulated learner."
At the heart of the feedback is the student's ability to master one level before moving on to the next level. For Kumon, grading is "here and now." Student work is graded as soon as possible. They receive the graded material and must correct their mistakes before going on to the next assignment. This "self-correction" process insures that students see mistakes they made in a timely way, critically analyze the mistake and correct it, and then employ the corrected knowledge in doing the next assignment. Clearly, this process builds confidence and an expectation of success. The student gains in skill and now knows that he or she is able to do math and comprehend reading passages. This result is no small attainment. Pajarer and Miller (1994) cogently point out that "students who lack confidence in their academic skills often exert less effort and persistence in difficult situations."
Long-Term Effect
While much of supplemental education is error-passed tutoring, it is important to note that teachers find tutoring to be a "quick fix." For example, "My son is having trouble with fractions" should generate a great deal of activity beyond the unique issue of fractions; e.g., inversions, denominators, identification, etc. Such a solution is certainly better than taking no action at all. But it is only a stop gap measure; in weeks, this same youngster could experience difficulties. In fact, his problem may be more systemic-he may need help with basic arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). As Ausubel (1963) noted, the learner needs long term involvement and practice "for acquiring many skills and concepts that do not occur frequently and repetitively enough in a more natural setting."
Kumon is a long-term approach. It begins at a starting point where the youngster knows math completely, and quickly helps the youngster learn what he probably didn't understand when presented in his or her regular classroom. Even more important in terms of time is Kumon's ongoing or cumulative impact on student achievement. The best example of the Kumon impact is to be found in a small town of Sumiton, Alabama. In 1989, the Kumon organization and the Sumiton Christian School began a relationship that has lasted nearly two decades.
The Sumiton School adopted the Kumon Method and has used it continuously over this period with great results. Its students have benefited greatly. Only recently did Kumon examine the impact in an organized fashion. Below are the test scores as compared to other students in Walker County and the State of Alabama (Figure 2).
These scores reflect some preliminary findings which show that the Sumiton students do considerably better than the other students in the county. The 10-point or more spread in grades three through six suggests that the Kumon math program appears to have a very positive impact on the students in this school.
With the success at Sumiton, and with about 8,000 other students in school programs, the Kumon organization has begun to consider expanding in selected school settings. To further establish the method as having a research-base, Kumon has entered into a research project with Columbia University Teachers College to examine Kumon's support in an urban setting. With a pilot program at PS 180 in New York City over the next 12-24 months, Columbia will consider the effectiveness of the Kumon Method.
A National Priority
Identifying and implementing extended learning has become a national priority. During the administration of President Bill Clinton, he and a Republican Congress enacted the 21 st Century Community Learning Centers grant program. In 2001, the program was authorized $846 million to "assure families, educators, and the community that youth will receive homework help, academic skills development, and wider community experience" (de Kanter, 2001). In addition to the federal government, the Mott Foundation and a number of private organizations and groups formed the Afterschool Alliance to encourage public support and involvement.
One of the first legislative issues embarked on by President George W. Bush was an educational program which calls for the use of supplemental education programs to assist failing schools. In No Child Left Behind (2001), President Bush proposed authorization to use federal tax dollars (Title I) for supplemental instructional services. His proposals include providing financial support to parents in failing schools who wish to use after-school programs to help their youngster improve their math and reading skills. In an early White House press briefing on education, a senior Bush administration official expressed the belief that all parents should have this option, noting that "it may be through the Kumon Math and Reading program" (White House Press Briefing, January 23, 2001).
In all, this new funding represents the significance and value of providing more learning opportunities. It also indicates the necessity that such learning not be just more of the same. The Kumon Method truly embodies the tenet posed by one observer (Kugler, 2001) that ". . . the achievement gap is an artifact of students' limited experiences, poorly funded schools, and struggling families, not the inevitable result of low potential." This is also the philosophy which Kumon treasures and promotes, and wishes to make available to all children.
References
Agran, M. (1997). Self-directed Learning: Teaching self-determination skills. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Behavior. New York:
Grune and Stratton.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Barnes, L., Cox, M., Gupta, E., Hollinsworth, P. and Sudduth, A (2001). The Effectiveness of Kumon Math to Improve Basic Math Skills of Disadvantaged Elementary School Students. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Tulsa.
Bloom, B. (1964). Stability and Change in Human Characteristics. New York: Wiley.
Bloom, B. (1968). "Mastery Learning," in Block, J. (Ed.). (1971). Mastery Learning: TheM and Practice. New York: Holt & Winston (pp. 4763).
Bloom, B. (1974). "Time and Learning," American Psychologist. 29, 682-688.
Bush, G. (2001). No Child Left Behind. Washington, DC.
Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) (2001). Extended Learning Initiatives: Opportunities and Implementation Challenges. Washington, DC: CCSSO.
Coulson, A. (1999). Market Education: The Unknown History. NY: Transaction Publishers.
Cox, M. (2000). The Effectiveness of Kumon Math on Improving Basic Math Skills in Elementary School Students. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Tulsa.
Darling-Hammond, L. and others (2001), October 29). "The Classroom of the Future." Newsweek, 60-68
De Kanter, A. (2001), "After-School Programs for Adolescents." NASSP Bulletin. 85, 12-20
Ericsson K., Krampe, R., and Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). "The role of Deliberate Practice on the Acquisition of Expert Performance." Psychological Review. 100, 363-406.
Evers, B. and Milgran, J. (2000, May 24). "The New Consensus in Math Teaching: Skills Matter," Education Week. 56, 44.
Gass, S., Mackey, A., Alvarez-Torres, M. and Fernandez-Garcia, M. (1999). "The Effects of Repetition on Linguistic Output," Language Learning. 49, 49-581.
Gray, C. and Mulhern, G. (1995). Does children's memory for addition facts predict general mathematical ability? Perceptual and Motor and Skills. 81(1), 163-165. Children.
Kugler, M. (2001). "After-School Programs Are Making a Difference." NASSP Bulletin, 85, 3-11.
Mote, M. (1996). "In Praise of Lower-order Thinking," Principal, 75, 46-47.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (2000). Revised Standards, 2000. Pajares, F. and Miller, M. (1994). "Role of self efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem-solving: A path analysis," Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 193-203.
Scott, J. (1996). " Self-Efficacy: A Key to Literacy Training," Reading Horizons, 36, 195-213.
US Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics (2001). Pursuing Excellence: Comparisons of International Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement from a US Perspective, 1995 and 1999. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
White House Press Office. White House Press Briefing on Bush's Education Plan. Washington, DC: The White House,January 23, 2001.
Wittman, T., Marcinkiewica, H., and Hamodey-- Douglas, S. (1998). "Computer-assisted automatization of multiplication facts reduces mathematical anxiety in elementary school." Proceedings of Selected Research and Development at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology ACET). St. Louis, MO: ACET. ED 423 869.
|
|